ITS applications are designed to improve the efficiency, safety, cost-effectiveness and us (See Traveller Services) and fare calculation and electronic payment systems (See Electronic Payment) assist with journey planning. They also help customers to make decisions about the better use of existing resources – such as deferring new car purchases.
Passenger transport operations” by contrast are concerned with the planning, management and operation of passenger transport fleets. They focus on the whole system – at the heart of which are communications between the operators’ control centres and their fleets for:
ITS applications, systems and services in all three areas help position public passenger transport within an integrated, smart, multimodal transport system for a town, city or region. This helps encourage people to rely less on cars – and delivers associated benefits such as reduced traffic congestion and pollution.
The scope of ITS applications in public passenger transport operations encompasses:
Six application areas illustrate the part that ITS applications plays in passenger transport operations:
ITS in operations and fleet management support various management functions (and sometimes simultaneously) including:
Communications for Passenger Transport Operations Management involves three elements:
The transmission of large quantities of data to vehicles, such as route schedules or software updates, is by short-distance communications. Often Wide Area Networks (WANs) at depots are used - or in some cases at specific strategic points on the network where the operator has control of the immediate environment. This may be done as and when network communications allow, with data being transferred in packets. A number of different methods of information transfer to and from vehicles may be used. These include laptop connection, infrared systems, wireless Local Area Networks (LANs) and portable data memory modules (including smartcards). Using physical connections for transfer of data has drawbacks since it is labour-intensive and requires vehicle downtime.
Long distance communications mainly relate to Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) information and voice communications - and take place during vehicle operations. A wide variety of different technologies can be used, including Private Mobile Radio (PMR) systems - both analogue and digital – and General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). These operate over the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) network. There is a trend towards replacing analogue PMR systems to with Terrestrial Trunked Radio (TETRA) – a digital PMR standard.
In AVL communications the general practice is for the in-vehicle radio system to be connected to an on-board computer - which is in turn connected to the vehicle’s Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) system. The GPS receiver passes location information to the on-board computer which transfers it to the radio system. Location, speed and time information updates may be transferred approximately every 30 seconds to the control centre - or directly to information screens for passengers. (See Enabling Technologies)
Strategies for TDM include:
ITS applications support the three strategies on transport choices and accessibility - and ITS will sometimes feature in TDM policies and programmes - their planning and evaluation. (See Transport Demand Management)
Remote automatic tracking of vehicles can be highly useful to deter theft or to recover vehicles if they are stolen. Remote immobilisation of vehicles is also possible. (See ITS & Road Safety)
ITS applications are central to the monitoring of the performance of passenger transport fleets and operations. Most importantly, they allow the operators of public passenger transport to visualise where their vehicles are located at any particular time, both in terms of actual location and relative to their schedule. They can also generate considerable amounts of data for post-event analysis – which can result in the introduction of measures to deliver major cost savings and productivity improvements. The interface in real-time between the road network operator and the controller of bus, minibus or transit operations is also important during traffic incidents and other emergencies. (See Traffic Incidents and Emergency Response)
The various categories of operation and fleet management function supported or carried out by ITS applications are described below. A particularly useful reference is the ITS Toolkit for Intelligent Transport Systems for urban passenger transport that has been developed by the World Bank: http://www.robat.scl.net/content/ITS-Toolkit/overview.html
Standards organisations are particularly relevant in this area. The world standards organisation is ISO (International Organisation for Standardisation). ISO Technical Committee 204 is responsible for Transport Information and Control Systems and includes a working group, WG8 Public Transport / Emergency, for which the Secretariat is provided by the USA.
The European Committee for Standardization (CEN - Comité Européen de Normalisation) is the relevant body for Europe. It has issued standards relating to a data model for public transport information (Transmodel) and to Real Time Information (SIRI – Service Interface for Real Time Information). Currently, at the pre-standards stage, is the development of a reference data model for describing fixed objects which is necessary for access to public transport (IFOPT - Identification of Fixed Objects in Public Transport).
Some countries are very active in contributing to the standardisation process in the area of public passenger transport, particularly the USA, Germany, and the UK. The USA has a protocol, the National Transportation Communications for Intelligent Transportation System Protocol (NTCIP), a family of standards designed to achieve interoperability and interchangeability between computers and electronic traffic control equipment from different manufacturers.
The USA’s Transit Co-operative Research Program (TCRP: http://www.tcrponline.org) publishes a lot of useful material including research data and operator and agency experience. Of critical importance in this field is the work of UITP and two ground-breaking projects in which it has been involved: EBSF (http://www.ebsf.eu, European Bus System of the Future) and associated initiatives such as 3iBS (http://www.3ibs.eu, Intelligent, Innovative, Integrated Bus System); and ITxPT (http://www.itxpt.org Information Technology for Public Transport).
One of the objectives of Road Network Operations is to provide for reliable bus, coach and taxi services on the network. The rapid detection and prompt resolution of any obstruction or other disruption to the roadway will help minimise the negative impact on passenger services and enable the resumption of normal operations as soon as possible after an incident. Good communications and close co-operation between passenger transport operators and the organisations responsible for the road network will pay dividends, especially when service diversions are necessary.
A key role for the Road Network Operator is the deployment of appropriate in-road and roadside equipment, such as transponders to control traffic signal priority for bus or transit priority. The Road Network Operator has a further interest in ensuring that public transport operations are properly provided for (e.g. the location of bus stops or the application of bus priority measures) so that general traffic is not disrupted, nor are other road users adversely affected.
Developing a schedule involves the preparation and assignment of the operational duties of a vehicle and crew in accordance with a required service specification, legal regulations and agreed work rules. Automated schedule systems are key for feeding data into other ITS systems as they determine the detailed timetable to which the bus service runs and provide a benchmark against which ITS applications are monitored.
PC or cloud-based proprietary scheduling packages are available but require the operator to input additional data on resource requirements (such as vehicles and crews), operating parameters (route lengths and operating speeds) and any relevant legal and policy requirements (such as drivers’ hours regulations).
Effective bus service scheduling is critically dependent on the accuracy of the data in terms of running speeds and their variability over different sections of route and times of day. In developing countries the variability may be very high, whereas the systems for accurately recording the data may be poor. The planning of reliable and efficient procedures for recording and using data is a key issue to be tackled prior to implementation.
It is in the road network operator’s interest to ensure that bus schedules are planned and maintained with an accurate knowledge of expected road closures and any known reductions in network availability. Data on planned events and other activities that may disrupt transport services should be made available to bus operators as far ahead as possible to feed into timetabling and service planning. Conversely the transport operator may hold accurate data on journey times and traffic running speeds at different locations and at different times of day that may be useful to the road network operator (for example as an indicator of the levels of service provided.)
Practitioners should consider the ability of automated scheduling systems to transfer data easily and cheaply under open protocols. The value of such systems to operations and fleet management essentially depends on the extent to which interaction with other ITS applications is possible.
More accurate data on road networks is becoming available – and the power and capacity of automated scheduling software is continually increasing. Suppliers of software are enhancing their products by developing features that integrate with other applications.
The key issue in running a scheduled service to a fixed timetable or headway in a developing country, is that scheduled services are rare because it is often the norm for services to run only when they are full. It may also be the case that the concept of running operations according to fixed times runs contrary to the prevailing culture. This represents a challenge - particularly where operational control procedures are not well-established or formalised. Operating a scheduled bus service also relies on the number of vehicles available being fairly stable. This can only be assured if formal vehicle maintenance procedures have been adopted and there are adequate facilities.
A serious issue is the high cost of proprietary scheduling systems. The investment may be justified by the potential efficiency savings that the systems offer - particularly in terms of the vehicle numbers required. However, the savings can only be realised if there are clear control procedures for staff and drivers so that vehicles can be moved between routes smoothly, according to the scheduled plan. Systems may need to take account of low literacy rates amongst driving staff in some countries.
Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) is at the heart of modern fleet management, helping operators to manage fleets more effectively through technologies that can provide a direct link between vehicles, operation control centres and real-time passenger information systems. It allows for real-time tracking of vehicles, enabling improved service efficiency, asset utilisation and customer service.
The primary navigational technologies used in AVL systems include Global Positioning Systems (GPS), dead-reckoning systems, station or roadside detectors, sub-surface detector loops and wireless triangulation. In-vehicle data processing is undertaken so that the GPS receiver’s three-dimensional coordinates can be determined. The information on vehicle location is then sent to the traffic centre, the dispatch centre and bus stop as needed. (See Enabling Technologies)
Since all satellite navigation systems require the observation of at least four satellites to function, vehicle location needs complementary systems that continue to work even when a vehicle is in a tunnel, under trees, or surrounded by tall buildings. Gaps in coverage can be bridged by:
There are other methods to determine vehicle location – such as mobile phones. These are important for emergency calls and other location-specific ITS services.
Practitioners will need to take decisions on how much to centralise the control centre. This will depend greatly on how much the dispatching function is already decentralised and on the capabilities of operating staff.
GALILEO, Europe’s Global Satellite Navigation System will provide a highly accurate guaranteed global positioning service under civilian control. The fully deployed system will consist of 30 satellites and the associated ground infrastructure. Galileo will be interoperable with GPS and GLONASS, the US and Russian military global satellite navigation systems. The high number of satellites available will allow positions to be determined to within a few centimetres, improving the availability of signals in high rise cities and providing better coverage at high latitudes.
Considerable investment is needed in data collection and software development to map the transport network and complement data generated by traffic and vehicles. ITS requires reliable databases of network links, interconnections and other features, supported by a sound location referencing system. Without an inventory of stop locations, for example, it is not possible to offer point-to-point journey planning for public transport. Similarly for road information, reliable coding of the network is needed for emergency response. Wherever possible, collection, location referencing and storage of this data in a database for use by public transport operators or an agency should be co-ordinated and compatible with data on the road network held by the road network operator.
Transport network databases need constant maintenance to keep them up-to-date. Careful checking is essential to avoid errors which can lead to features being incorrectly located.
A number of operational functions can be monitored by on-board systems - from the operational status of a route (including schedule adherence) to consumption of resources, engine performance and driving behaviour. Data from operational status monitoring can also enable more effective monitoring of service contract performance.
These features will typically be implemented as part of an application integrating service schedules and route details with Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) and Computer Aided Design (CAD) technologies – to convey information to the CAD / Automatic Vehicle Monitoring (AVM) dispatcher. Microcontrollers located on individual vehicle components allow the technical status of the vehicle drive-train to be captured for monitoring purposes. Infrared sensors and on-board cameras capture passenger loading data.
It is important that different systems used for different purposes do not conflict with each other. The extent to which a bus or coach manufacturer’s technical specification allows for the coexistence of different monitoring functionality needs to be considered prior to purchasing new vehicles.
Applications for monitoring performance must be complemented by training programmes aimed at improving performance, if the ITS systems are to have any benefit.
Similarly the delivery of status monitoring information to dispatchers can be made more effective when complemented by tools which highlight changes in status - such as colour coding, flashing lights and audio.
The value of monitoring applications is increasing rapidly due to the availability of more accurate data, higher processing power, more sophisticated algorithms for data analysis - and a growing range of devices from which results can be accessed. The European Bus System of the Future (EBSF) project (http://www.ebsf.eu) showed that by combining a dynamic programming algorithm with monitoring of fuel consumption by auxiliaries – it was possible to reduce fuel consumption to an absolute minimum.
Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) will also increasingly be offering monitoring applications as standard, factory-installed on-board computers.
The usefulness of sophisticated monitoring systems for vehicle performance will often depend on vehicles being properly maintained and on drivers being able to interpret console warning signals. These conditions must be in place if monitoring systems are to be used effectively.
Key operations at terminals include Computer-Aided Despatch (CAD), platform /stand allocation, kerb/stop alignment, platform / stand announcements, and crowd control. Terminals are critical locations for realigning operations with schedules. ITS is of great benefit here in providing the information that allows vehicle controllers to adjust service levels. Vehicle control rooms are often situated in terminals therefore – which are also often the places where driving staff take their rest and meal breaks.
Infrared sensors are used for vehicle alignment and may also be used for crowd control and for passenger platform access control.
In the Transport Est-Ouest Rouennais (TEOR) system in Rouen an optical guidance system is successfully used to align the bus at the platform. An electronic suspension control enables precise vertical alignment to the platform and a gap filler installation is used for horizontal gap filling. Electronic infrared cells on the side of the vehicle detect the height of the dock and regulate the vehicle’s height with an automatic suspension system, placing the bus at the same level as the dock.
Computer algorithms may be used for allocating vehicles to specific departure platforms. Computer models may be constructed, based, for instance, on the IFOPT specification, to map out at terminals so that physical layout can be fully expressed and correct information conveyed to passengers.
Control of driver breaks is, in many countries, important to comply with legal requirements. These can take place at terminals and ITS tools can assist in their management by monitoring driver performance and adherence to schedule as well as the position and predicted arrival times of vehicles. The road network operator should liaise with operators to ensure that bus layover locations are made available on or adjacent to the road network at places where it makes operational sense to have them.
Real-time allocation of stands or stand platforms is increasing but is still a new phenomenon. A recent installation in the UK is at the new Bus Station at Chatham, in the Medway area.
Bus Station at Chatham
Chatham Waterfront consists of four platforms labelled A, B, C and D - each with a number of individual stops on them. While the bus stop from which passengers catch their bus service may change, they will always go to the same platform for a particular destination
Large variability in road speed and unpredictable traffic congestion, combined with volatile passenger demand, can lead to pressure to abandon bus schedules in urban areas in developing economies. ITS tools can give essential information to route controllers at terminals to enable them to adjust operations efficiently - and in such a way that drivers’ hours remain within legal requirements. However, good radio links for vehicle controllers at all key locations, particularly terminals and major well-used passenger stops are vital. Vehicle controllers should also be alerted to social media broadcasts of traffic disruptions (e.g. Twitter feeds), particularly if it is not possible to provide reliable radio access to vehicles.
ITS can also assist drivers with vehicle parking in situations where there is excess capacity of vehicles - as is often the case, outside of peak hours, in developing economies.
It is essential that when communications infrastructure is planned a holistic and integrated approach is adopted, so that all parts work together to provide what is needed. The ITS should be planned into terminal design. This is relevant also to Traveller Services. (See Traveller Services)
Studies worldwide have shown growth in public transport passenger patronage as a result of measures which set effective traffic priorities. In the US passenger numbers along commuter corridors equipped with bus rapid transit systems - increase by an average of 35% according to the US Department of Transportation’s Federal Transit Administration. Bus rapid transit - defined as bus public transport enhanced with ITS systems for better services - is winning new passengers wishing to avoid personal car transport and the associated fuel costs and traffic congestion. Public transport vehicles can be given priority over general traffic by integrating their operation into urban traffic control (UTC) systems. Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) enables buses and trams to be identified as they approach signalised intersections, where they transmit a ‘request’ to the traffic light controller to extend or recall the green phase for long enough to let them through. Detection can be via inductive loops under the road surface, roadside beacons, or GPS systems, which may be integrated with real-time information systems.
Another priority system is the guided busway, which has been implemented in Germany, Australia and the UK. This supplements conventional bus lanes with specially-designed track sections. There are both mechanical and electronic systems. In electronic systems an electric cable is embedded in the centre of the busway. On-board inductive detection steers the wheels continuously to keep the vehicle centred over the cable. At the end of a busway section, traffic signal priority allows access to general roadway lanes.
Inductive loop detectors can be used to detect the passage of vehicles in a given location. The detector consists of a wire loop embedded in the surface of the roadway which is connected to an electronic unit housed in a controller cabinet. The presence of a conductive metal object is sensed as a reduction in loop inductance - which is ultimately interpreted by the controller as a vehicle. While this is a commonly used technology, virtual GPS systems have now entered the market – and these may be linked to the on-vehicle computer.
Such systems and infrastructure for controlling accessing to a busway need to be integrated and co-ordinated with other elements of the road network operator’s asset base.
It is essential that the road network operators work together with transport operators to ensure that ITS systems are both designed to function together and also actually do in practice. The aim is to enable the provision of reliable bus services and in congested areas this may require a policy of prioritising buses over other classes of traffic. Any consequent negative impacts on other classes of road users should be thought through and not just occur as an unplanned result of actions, policies or systems for public passenger transport.
Areas of which can cause difficulty include communications protocols, compatibility of infrastructure, proprietary systems, data transfer, incompatible location referencing, lack of open standards, and operational procedures. Responsibilities of each organisation also need to be clearly understood as part of the concept of operations when developing the ITS architecture. (See ITS Architecture)
It is essential that all parties communicate and partner together effectively over street layout and the choice of traffic control equipment. Equipment that is purchased by road network operators must be compatible with standard in-vehicle detection and activation equipment installed by bus manufacturers.
Sub-surface detector loops are not capable of distinguishing between different vehicles of the same type and so are not suited to monitoring the location of a specific vehicle. Some traffic control systems are capable of allowing selective bus or tram signal priority, depending on whether or not the vehicle is running late.
Increasingly, AVL and communications with road infrastructure are being integrated - leading to a reduction in the number of on-board bus computer units.
Wherever a culture of low adherence to traffic rules exists, in order to ensure effective traffic priority, the visible presence of traffic supervisors to enforce rules may be necessary irrespective of the presence of ITS systems and traffic signals. In such circumstances the traffic supervisors need training on working effectively with the ITS systems.
Condition-based vehicle maintenance systems can be enhanced and supported through in-vehicle data capture technologies monitoring the status of the vehicle’s drive-train and the parking system. Vehicle Maintenance Scheduling systems, which are not usually complex but may incorporate an extensive database, can be linked to other ITS applications such as Automatic vehicle Location (AVL) systems which hold data on the number of kilometres travelled.
ITS-supported maintenance systems can consolidate all records of planned and unplanned maintenance into a single system and may be designed to automatically generate maintenance schedules.
Telediagnostic systems, based on monitoring, can optimise preventive and predictive maintenance. This can lead to a reduced number of vehicles being required to operate a given bus network and so lower costs.
Advanced databases store a large number of users, records and enquiries. These can be integrated with administrative resources used to plan, monitor and record maintenance.
Best value from condition-based monitoring systems is usually obtained when they are integrated with the operator’s other systems - from the input provided by on-board monitoring systems to management accounts outputs.
Advanced vehicle maintenance systems focussing on maximising fuel economy are likely to be developed in the next few years as additional on-board equipment (including that needed for ITS systems). The increased weight may contribute to higher fuel consumption.
Advanced vehicle maintenance systems can help to structure and plan maintenance - but only if the equipment and physical infrastructure to deliver the required maintenance is already in place. They can be of help in demonstrating the consequences of failure to maintain vehicles in terms of unit failure rates and so provide valuable evidence to convince stakeholders (agencies and operators) that regular, structured, vehicle maintenance is a necessary requirement in running a bus service.
Bus network planning and incident coordination are two key areas for managing bus operations.
Computer-based network planning tools range from simple spreadsheet-based resources to complex network modelling and demand forecasting tools. For spreadsheet-based planning, only basic calibration data, current travel patterns, growth forecasts and unit cost and revenue data will be needed. More complex modelling and forecasting will require heavy computational software modelling abilities – such as four-step or activity based models. It will also require considerable data input including origin-destination datasets, activity information, road network descriptors and travel times and costs.
Potential demand for a bus network is likely to emerge, either directly or indirectly, out of wider multi-modal models with much data. Relatively little data will then be needed for modelling the bus network itself – data such as journey times, fleet sizes, depot locations, and fares.
Some collaboration will be required between the road network operator and the bus operator(s) to specify the corridors and sections of road where bus priority is needed and the junctions and approaches where bus gates or traffic signal priority and enforcement are required. (See Urban Traffic Management and Urban Traffic Control)
The bus network will need to be digitally defined, using accepted national or international protocols (for example the TransXChange data format used in the UK, which is based on the CEN - Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) Transmodal conceptual model). This definition will include details of the roads used, the stops used and the stop patterns for each defined bus journey. With such a geo-spatial definition it becomes possible to construct digital maps of the bus network that can be accessed, in whole or in part, over various digital media such as websites, and mobile phone apps and can also be produced in printed form.
A particular useful application is the public transport journey planner, and increasingly these are combined with information on walking routes and walking speeds to give door-to-door journey planners. (See Journey Planning)
Equipping service controllers with internet-enabled communications devices (such as hand-held devices or smartphones with relevant apps) enables them to keep passengers informed with up to date and correct in formation. Similarly, enabling direct radio communication between vehicles, will allows drivers to co-ordinate their own operations where appropriate. (See Traffic Incidents)
For bus network planning, major determinants of demand for bus services are fare levels, fare structures and payment methods. Fare structures are also a key factor in helping make interchange with other bus networks and other transport modes convenient – and this too is a key influencer of demand. Service planning modelling tools should be used in conjunction with local knowledge to ensure that local constraints and conditions are given their proper weight.
For service incident coordination it is essential that clear protocols are in place for operating staff to follow - so that they can judge when to delay the departure of connecting vehicles if first vehicles are running late and when to strictly adhere to the scheduled timetable.
The availability of detailed and freely-accessed digital street maps has increased enormously in recent years, as have the computational power and data storage facilities of PCs and other desk-based and portable computers. This has meant that relatively simple and straightforward models of bus networks with accurate data can be more easily constructed than before. (See Location Referencing)
Demand for bus services will grow in response to rapid urbanisation and the ease with which operators of more informal bus services - often found in developing economies - are able to function. This must be taken account in all bus network planning. It is necessary to attend to basic requirements first – such as designated passenger pick up and setting down points. Properly functioning communications systems are essential to deal effectively with incident coordination.
Information dissemination concerns the processes of conveying information via ITS applications from the operator to other partners – such as the regulator / agency – and to passengers. Correct and timely dissemination of information is essential for exploiting sales opportunities, for maximising operational efficiency and for minimising the effects of disruption (and their associated cost).
The more that passengers become aware of the application and potential of ITS public passenger transport information, the higher their expectation of the operator. This results in more the damage to the public image of the operator or the agency when things go wrong if relevant and timely information is not provided. (see Traveller Services)
Information dissemination systems within the vehicle can provide travel information to bus stops and passenger terminals and to the internet and wireless devices.
The technical robustness of communications infrastructure and technology are very important - particularly in relation to the demands of a moving vehicle and the limitations imposed by changing reception and transmission capabilities. Just as important, though sometimes neglected during project planning, are the robustness of the systems, protocols and processes for conveying information - both within departments of the same organisation and between departments and different organisations.
The quality of the raw information is key - and in a multi-operator or multi-agency environment, the challenge is integrating data from different sources. Information to passengers will often be integrated in a multimodal environment - with bus service information being shown alongside that for rail, metro and ferry services and private modes. This creates additional challenges in relation to the processing and display of information.
Information dissemination is often seen as an activity that is ‘nice to have’ but not essential to the business of operating public passenger transport – and can be seen as a saving when reacting to cost pressures. However, the counter argument is that they are critical to the maintenance and growth of revenue from passengers - and effort should be focused instead on making processes and technology more efficient, particularly in the area of automation.
Standards organisations such as ISO and CEN are critical to the process of information dissemination as they determine the operating environment. National community interest groups in public passenger transport information technology are also key as they are listened to by governments, provide a forum whereby manufacturers and users (purchasers of systems) can come together, promote solutions and disseminate best-practice. In the UK relevant bodies are Intelligent Transport Systems UK (ITS UK) and Real Time Information Group (RTIG).
There may also be national travel information delivery bodies that are critical to the process - such as the National Transport Authority in Ireland, Traveline in the UK, and Samtrafiken in Sweden. Vehicle manufacturers also have a central role since they determine the operating environment within which ITS applications can function and this is particularly relevant for communication standards.
Information disseminated through smartphone and tablet apps depend on the release of APIs (application programme interfaces) – and the facilitating role of organisations responsible for releasing these is more and more important as smartphones and tablets increase their market share. These may be national travel information bodies or regional bodies such as Data GM in Greater Manchester in the UK and Transport for London. By releasing a wide range of data - these bodies offer developers opportunities to creatively integrate public passenger transport data with other data to produce information of real value to travellers.
The controllers of the smartphone and tablet operating platform application stores (such as. Apple and Google) are also important players as they provide application developers and providers with access to the marketplace.
The Road Network Operator has the job of maintaining safety on the road network and the safety of drivers and other road users. In providing communications to roadside equipment, a concern will be potential interference from communications with other road ITS applications. The road operator will also need to ensure that digital signage for passenger transport information does not conflict or interfere with the requirements of other road users. To do this it will:
The effective operation of in-vehicle systems relies on the interoperability and trouble-free connectivity of equipment. Leading the way here has been the European Bus System of the Future (EBSF) project. Its IT architecture is open and interoperable, meaning that operators and organising authorities can use public transport data, anywhere in Europe, using common mechanisms, standard rules and protocols.
With standardisation the process of installing and configuring new equipment is automatic and makes maintenance and daily operations much easier. This translates into lower costs – of investment, installation, operation, maintenance and scalability. Tenders can be opened to more competitors - which helps generate better prices. Installation and maintenance of new applications and IT devices is quick - effectively plug and play.
Interoperability, standardisation and holistic planning reduce energy consumption. As ITS devices consume a lot of energy inside the vehicle - a feature of new systems is smart power management. Standard power management rules help to maximise a vehicle’s battery life and reduce the environmental impact. (See In-vehicle System)
Care should be taken to compare the features and component connectivity and interoperability offered by different vehicle manufacturers.
European Bus System of the Future (EBSF) incorporates a number of new features relating to passengers – such as lights indicating free passenger seats and entrances to the bus with the least congestion. Other features include advanced electrics enabling the charging of mobile phones. Increasingly common is wi-fi connectivity on buses and express coaches – and this can be a key selling feature of the public passenger transport experience.
Vehicle standardisation is very helpful in reducing costs, but the developments in Europe with EBSF and similar developments are unlikely to feed through to developing economies for some time. A key reason for this is the much harsher and more variable road conditions in cities within developing economies and the general variability but simplicity of much passenger transport equipment.
However, vehicle purchasers in developing economies should be aware of the extent to which their potential suppliers are able to adopt standards and systems - particularly those which serve to reduce purchase and operating costs.
Care should be taken in planning how new-generation and holistically-designed vehicles are deployed within the fleet, particularly in relation to older vehicles, and in considering whether there are issues relating to driver training.
Connectivity of the bus stop to the general travel information electronic network is essential in order to ensure accurate and meaningful real-time information for the passenger. Whilst delivery of information over the internet direct to the passenger is becoming more common many passengers do not have mobile devices - so electronic displays at the bus stop are their only means of receiving real-time information. (See Internet/Wireless and Kiosk)
At individual stops en-route communication between the bus and the stop sign may be direct, whereby the bus communicates directly with a communication device at the stop or it may be provided via a control centre - so the bus communicates with the control centre and the control centre communicates with the bus stop. Direct communication is usually more reliable as it involves one less risk of error.
Pre-scheduled information may also be conveyed electronically via signs at the stop - and this is usually the default display if the real-time information system is not working properly for any reason. In bus terminals, particularly large ones where there are large numbers of services, electronic display of scheduled information can be a very effective way of providing information about services. Destinations, route numbers, operator name and departure bay are all helpful information in addition to the scheduled departure time.
Care should be taken to ensure that running costs are known and budgeted. In recent years, unsustainable operating costs have resulted in some local government authorities in England switching off their bus stop real-time information displays.
Low-cost and solar-powered systems may be used to display electronically at the bus stop only those services highlighted by passengers
Electronic stop signs are not usually recommended for developing economies. This is partly because the value of the information may be less - depending on the value placed on time and how rare scheduled bus services may be. However, where these considerations do not apply - a compelling reason for using internet / wireless systems rather than electronic bus stop signs is the rapid penetration of internet-enabled mobile phones. This type of communication platform also shifts much of the operating cost from the operator or agency to the passenger.
Communication of information to passengers may be via SMS on mobile phone, internet enabled smartphones or tablets - using specific public passenger transport apps - or via social media apps. Information can also be conveyed to office or home-based devices such as PCs and laptops using public transport and social media websites.
This information exchange can be combined with GPS in applications to identify the location of the user and the nearest bus stops - or for booking vehicles such as taxis. In this case the booking system can be accessed via a call centre or through apps which identify the user’s location and the nearest available taxis. In a similar way, mobile systems can book time slots to hire ‘shared use’ cars or bicycles and to link to systems which unlock the vehicle for use by the recognised hirer.
Whether the technology is Internet, mobile telecoms, GPS and booking / reservation systems – the key to successful applications is accurate datasets – of the road network, bus stops, bus schedules, taxi ranks, car club parking bays and cycle hire stands. (See Location-Based Services)
There is a large and growing community of developers who are producing mobile apps for better interrogation of public passenger transport timetables. At the same time there are standard offerings of public transport information available such as Google Transit. Agencies and operators need to understand the requirements of the various offerings in terms of data provision and maintenance - and their passenger benefits.
The number of cities across the world offering wireless and internet access to scheduled and real-time information is increasing all the time. Service providers should investigate what’s available in similar cities before launching their own offering.
Social Media (such as Facebook and Twitter) is of as much interest in urbanised parts of developing economies as in the more developed world - particularly where there is a young population. However communications networks - and therefore access to them - may be not provide good coverage or speed. Internal communication channels and the processes used by operators and agencies for conveying up-to-date information about alerts and incidents may be less strong. For cultural reasons, particularly where information is largely conveyed by word of mouth, false rumours regarding incidents on the passenger transport network may also spread quicker and with stronger repercussions than in well-developed economies It is therefore important that the operator’s processes for conveying accurate information work effectively before they adopt social media.
Transport demand management, often known as TDM, is the application of strategies and policies to reduce travel in single-occupancy private vehicles - or to redistribute it to places and times where it causes fewer negative externalities such as congestion or pollution. (See Demand Management)
Managing demand can be a cost-effective alternative to increasing capacity, and also has the potential to deliver better environmental outcomes, improved public health and more liveable and attractive cities. A major tool to implement TDM is the Travel Plan, which may be site-based, organisation-based or area-based.
Whilst many of the techniques of transportation demand management, and therefore of travel plans, involve non-technical approaches such as personal coaching and the design and production of printed material, ITS applications can play a major role in three areas:
Car-pooling, one form of this concept, also has urban planning benefits, in that building developers can be required (or choose) to provide fewer parking spaces, so saving land and costs.
A general source of expertise about TDM worldwide is the Victoria Transport Policy Institute (VTPI) in British Columbia, Canada (http://www.vtpi.org). There are also a number of national and regional organisations that are involved in the promotion and / or management of schemes designed to support TDM. These range from organisations promoting TDM itself, such as ACT TravelWise in the UK (http://www.acttravelwise.org), through to organisations promoting particular elements of travel demand such as Carplus in the UK. Carplus was established to support the development of car clubs and ride-sharing schemes in Britain. Its core stakeholders were operators, service providers and local authority partners.
Local authority membership of these organisations can help them achieve their targets in areas which TDM can address - such as congestion, air quality and social exclusion.
Another important group of organisations is the providers of software for matching journeys. These include companies producing scheduling applications - who may also provide applications specific to scheduling para-transit services. There are also companies who produce software for particular service markets which involve flexible operations – such as firms producing software for the taxi market and software providers for the delivery of travel plans.
For ITS-based ride-sharing, potential users contact a control centre to specify their destination, preferred time of travel, and any special needs. The centre uses algorithms to identify the most appropriate vehicle operating that matches requirements as closely as possible. The vehicle could already be carrying passengers on compatible routes. It may be privately owned (such as a car) with the private owner simply giving a lift to the passenger - or it may be a larger vehicle, perhaps a shared-ownership one. It may be a one-off or a regular journey. The dispatch may be carried out automatically or arranged through a website - perhaps involving an element of social networking.
Often the service will be provided to a specific client group, for instance the elderly, and users will already have registered with the operators or with a service provider who has contracted the operator.
The service will use specific software which is in many cases capable of handling a very large number of different types of enquiry and delivering solutions consecutively.
Implementers should consider the ease of use of the software, its appropriateness for providing transport for particular client groups with very specific requirements - and the extent to which it is scalable. They should also consider the extent to which it allows integration with other Travel Demand Management solutions.
This is an area where web-based and cloud-based technologies are increasingly coming to the fore.
Whilst ride sharing and matching software can offer huge increases in the efficiency of ‘informal’ shared transport services in developing economies, the cost of the required software will be a barrier to implementation. Possibly more important is the extent to which the informal sector can be controlled by the regulator or authority – impacting on the extent to which the software can be used in practise. Institutional issues will need thorough analysis before the introduction of these systems is contemplated.
Dynamic Routing or Scheduling is closely related to Ride Sharing and Matching, in that it often uses the same or linked software and is often employed by para-transit services so that routes can be calculated in real-time to enable ride matching to take place.
The software requires digital maps of the road network, including one-way sections and restricted turns. These need to show road widths and restrictions so that the system can calculate the shortest appropriate routes accurately – and information on road surfaces need to be maintained so that their suitability for different types of public passenger transport vehicle can be assessed.
The service requires in-vehicle devices to guide the driver and links to the control centre where the calculation of ride sharing and matching is performed,
Since schedules are re-calculated in real time - only summary and approximate advance information can be conveyed to waiting passengers. For instance, times may be shown as a ‘time window’ in which the vehicle will arrive, rather than a detailed timing.
Because of the complexity of the tasks undertaken by the software it is very important that agencies and authorities satisfy themselves that the software they are considering purchasing has been used successfully in similar environments to perform similar tasks.
The power of computing is increasing very rapidly and hence the complexity and sophistication of performance of such dynamic routing systems.
Obtaining current and accurate digital maps of the road network can be very difficult. Dual-carriageway roads in cities in developing economies may feature very long barriers between the carriageways which cannot be crossed. At the same time the barriers may be changed quickly – being removed at little or no notice in certain places to allow vehicle manoeuvres which were not previously possible. Systems and processes to guarantee the reliability of digital map data is essential if dynamic routing is to be adopted successfully.
ITS applications for safety and security include surveillance and monitoring systems for public passenger transport vehicles, bus and tram stops, taxi ranks and facilities - and associated car parks such as for Park & Ride. Associated facilities may also include ITS applications - such as real-time information signs, off-bus ticket machines and customer help points. They may be fitted with automatic systems that shut them down to prevent further damage in the event of vandalism.
Other facilities also need protection and / or security control which can be provided by automatic or manual systems – such as those designed to protect public transport vehicle operatives, including:
CCTV is the primary form of ITS safety and security monitoring. CCTV camera technology is continually developing - delivering higher resolution with miniaturised components at lower cost. (See Safety & Security)
Recording and storage of personal information is often governed by national standards organisations. In the UK the Office of the Information Commissioner issues a Good Practice Guide for those operating CCTV and other devices which view or record images of individuals.
International standards organisations role is key here. The ISO (International Organisation for Standardisation) is the world standards organisation and that for Europe is the European Committee for Standardization (CEN - Comité Européen de Normalisation).
Industry trade bodies promote the interests of the companies that are active in the security systems market. In the UK for instance the British Security Industry Association (BSIA) is an active player.
Co-ordination between the road network operator and the bus operator(s) in real-time is essential during incidents and emergencies. It is particularly important that there are good communications between control rooms. This not only leads to a greater likelihood that the incident will be resolved effectively but also makes it more likely that information emanating from different sources is consistent.
Shared use of CCTV between control rooms should be encouraged as it can help the controllers with the identification of incidents and their causes and the resolution of problems.
The Road Network Operator also has an interest to ensure that roadside public passenger transport security systems do not have a negative impact on the proper operation of the road network. (See Network Operations)
In-vehicle surveillance has a number of different advantages from evidence gathering to providing a sense of security and safety to passengers and making public passenger transport a much more attractive mode.
The output from in-vehicle security applications is mainly recorded for analysis after the event. However, driver-activated alarms are an important means of communication and may incorporate a direct communications link to control centres. Such communications may also be triggered automatically by in-vehicle systems when major physical shocks are experienced by the vehicle.
In-vehicle surveillance systems can also record images of occurrences external to the bus (such as collisions or damage) as well as within the vehicle itself. They can therefore be of great importance in insurance claims.
In-vehicle CCTV systems may also incorporate GPS position-recording and Wi-Fi and GSM connectivity. Generally CCTV images will not be transmitted because of the high bandwidth required - but stored for use at a later date.
Until recently image processing was non-existent in the bus sector - with CCTV image monitoring being completely reliant on operatives watching banks of screens. To date it is still largely confined to providing driver assistance rather than in-vehicle security aids.
Mobile CCTV can be incorporated into the vehicle design so that it is fitted into the bodywork at the time of construction. It is also increasingly common for rear-facing cameras and associated viewing screens for the driver to be installed as standard equipment on buses.
Those specifying equipment for in-vehicle surveillance should be aware of the rapid advances in technology relating to image processing and communications and must be alert to the need for equipment to be ‘future-proof’.
The European Bus System of the Future (EBSF - http://www.ebsf.eu) and its successor project 3iBS (http://www.3ibs.eu) have a major focus on on-board systems integration, in which safety and security applications play a key part.
As with many high-technology features customers in developing economies need to be particularly aware of the extent to which genuine spare parts are easily available at an affordable price. Also, poor coverage or unreliable telecommunications may mean that redundancy should be built into systems.
Security applications at bus stops and bus terminals may be used for real-time monitoring so security operatives can be summoned. Surveillance equipment might range from simple fixed wide-angle cameras to remote-controlled adjustable pan and zoom video cameras – and can use remote monitoring and infinite loop recorders.
Recorded images from CCTV systems may be used for the investigation of incidents, as evidence in Court - and for training and analysis purposes such as modelling the dynamics of the bus terminal, including how crowds build up. This can be valuable to inform the design of future terminals.
The key technologies are CCTV and systems for remote disabling of equipment to prevent further damage where equipment is vandalised. In contrast to in-vehicle surveillance, high bandwidth connections can be used to transmit images from the CCTV cameras to control centres and other locations. Whilst this provides many opportunities for surveillance, it also presents some content management issues. Other technologies include telecommunications - usually land lines and fibre-optic (due to bandwidth requirements) - viewing screens at control centres, image management software and image and data storage and archiving.
Interfaces need to be specified and tested - and well-structured and managed system need to be in place to control effectively the large number of cameras and the large volume of continuous data and image streams. Compliant procedures need to be established for the capture, storage and handling of images and information - to ensure that any data used as evidence is admissible in Court.
Practitioners need to be aware that the costs of maintaining CCTV systems can be high. Absolute reliance on surveillance technology is no substitute for the reassurance to travellers that comes from the presence of uniformed staff – who can also provide information to travellers and assist those with special needs.
CCTV technology is increasing in sophistication. Particularly important is the development of Video Content Analysis (VCA) - where video can be automatically analysed to detect temporal events which are not based on a single image. A system using VCA can recognize changes in the environment and identify and compare objects in the database using size, speed, and colour.
A limited availability of bandwidth may impose severe constraints on the extent to which sophisticated surveillance technology can be used. Climatic conditions and environmentally polluted conditions provide further challenges for the effective operation of equipment.
Remote disabling systems can prevent access by unauthorised drivers or vehicles to particular roads or areas (such as an airport or a busway) - and they can also prevent access by unauthorised persons to vehicles or movement of vehicles.
Preventing access by unauthorised drivers can help ensure that only bus drivers with specific security clearance are able to access restricted roads - which can be important in sensitive locations. The same remote disabling features can also prevent vehicles from accessing ‘off-limit’ roads. Physical response restrictions can be triggered by ITS applications – and include raising bollards and lowering barriers.
The ability to disable vehicles at the time of driver access is also valuable for applications such as car clubs - where only registered members are able to access or start the vehicle using remote control of vehicle capability.
The key technologies:
Reliability of systems is extremely important - and those that deploy and implement the systems need to look into this thoroughly before purchasing an application.
Geo-fencing is a relatively new technology and is an increasingly common feature of location-based management solutions. It is expected to play an important role in the development of new types of applications.