Road transport has been – and will continue to be – a driving force behind economic development in all countries. Safe and efficient transport is a critical factor in making the transition to a modern economy.
As standards of living increase – so does demand for investment in transport infrastructure and vehicles. Often, the capital required to meet demand exceeds resources. To tackle this, many transport professionals are turning to ITS as a way of securing greater efficiency and productivity from existing investments in the road infrastructure and vehicle fleet.
For countries with economies in transition – ITS technology transfer is complex business. Transferring ITS experience – gained from deployments in industrialised countries – requires a flexible approach to ensure that ITS deployments are well adapted to very different, local conditions.
Transport professionals have an important part to play in the implementation of ITS. They must become familiar with the technical, organisational and legal aspects of ITS, to be confident when launching a new ITS project. Traditional academic educational programmes are often insufficient to prepare future ITS professionals.
The viability of ITS solutions in developing economies needs to be evaluated before deployment decisions are made. The assessment is dependent on a number of factors:
Building institutional capability, involves developing expertise in a diverse range of topics – such as:
Organisations may need to hire employees with relevant experience – or train existing employees in the multidisciplinary areas required for the specific ITS services to be deployed.
ITS and Organisational Change
The World Bank has highlighted that organisational change is inevitable when ITS are implemented:
“The greatest advantage is achieved when ITS is implemented because the organisation seeks to change – and hence the organisational change actually drives the process – compared to some organisations where change is a reaction to a new technology.”
“Most effective ITS deployment occurs when organisational change, business process change, and ITS deployment are designed together. In these cases the organisational change leads and the ITS is designed as a core enabler of the new processes.”
Changes tend to occur at six distinct but related levels:
See: World Bank ITS Toolkit on-line at http://www.robat.scl.net/content/ITS-Toolkit/guidance/design.html
A national or regional roads authority has a strategic part to play in the development and deployment of ITS, for two reasons:
Road authorities have traditionally focused on the construction and maintenance of roads and bridges – which requires civil engineering skills. This means that a decision to adopt ITS technology and systems will raise a number of challenges.
Many ITS technologies – like electronic payment systems – have emerged as mainstream technologies comparatively recently. Consequently, there is often a low level of understanding of the potential of ITS amongst well-established senior managers and professional staff. This presents a real challenge for many roads and highway organisations and national roads authorities. Until recently staff skills have had to been rooted in civil engineering to fulfil their remit of building and maintaining highways and bridges. By contrast, ITS practitioners need to be able to appreciate the complex interplay between systems involving modern information and communication technologies.
The commitment of a national or regional road authority to implement Intelligent Transport Systems has to start at the highest levels of the organisation. Senior management needs to plan, prepare and direct the organisational changes that will occur as new working methods and ITS-based services are introduced. To do this, they need to acquire a good appreciation of ITS – and their role in its implementation. For example, they will need to make decisions on organisational change, the scale of investment, and the level of staffing and other resources needed to deploy ITS. (See Use of ITS)
Successful deployment of ITS-based services is much easier if the motivation and interests of different organisations can be brought together. Close contact with key stakeholders is needed throughout the planning and deployment process. Senior officials of public agencies and chief executives of major private sector companies must take a close interest in the planning of ITS – because of its potential significance.
A number of different organisations will need to ‘buy in’ to the overall vision for ITS and the process of ITS deployment. Building consensus and securing the agreement of the principal actors is an activity of strategic importance. Staff at all levels will need training in how to work with and secure the collaboration of the various stakeholders such as:
See Managing ITS Implementation and Policy Framework Analysis
In most countries the police service is a vital partner in Road Network Operations because they are directly involved in law enforcement that impacts on public safety, traffic management and compliance with traffic regulations. Collaboration between police and the road operator or road authority on ITS deployment is essential.
POLICE AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
The investigation and prevention of criminal activities is a core police responsibility. The police are responsible for enforcement to target unsafe speeds and overloaded trucks.
There are several police functions that benefit traffic – which are less intimately concerned with criminality and enforcement of the law. Examples include – traffic control and dealing with traffic accidents and congestion incidents – which benefit road users through fewer delays and greater safety. In some countries, providing the resources for traffic policing may not be high priority compared to other calls on police time. In these circumstances the road authority or its agencies may need to develop a ‘back office’ capability to administer traffic penalties. (See Policing/Enforcement and Back Office Arrangements and Enforcement)
The deployment of ITS will be impacted by the specific characteristics and circumstances of the area in which it is implemented – whether at local, national or regional level. For example, Latin America has made major investments in ITS – helping to stimulate the emergence of non-governmental ITS organisations to facilitate interaction on ITS deployments between the public and private sectors. Organisations such as ITS Argentina, ITS Brazil, and ITS Chile provide encourage and support.
The context for deployment in Latin America is challenging for many reasons:
Other characteristics that have significant consequences for ITS development are commonly found in countries in Asia:
Increasing demand for mobility, for passenger and commercial vehicles, and railways, is influenced by rising standards of living in emerging economies. All countries are experiencing increased pressure to provide adequate traffic capacity and to maintain infrastructure at acceptable levels.
Major challenges exist and will become more intense as the demand for an acceptable quality of mobility increases and has to be accommodated within resource constraints. Increasing traffic capacity to match the growth of traffic demand is difficult. Meeting these challenges requires commitment and cultural change at the institutional and regulatory levels.
Vehicle ownership is increasing significantly in both developed and developing economies. The road infrastructure is not able to support the growth in traffic highlighting the urgent need for more investment in infrastructure. Academics at the University of California have forecast that the number of motor vehicles (other than two-wheelers) in the world, will reach 1.3 billion by 2020 – more than double the number of vehicles that exist today. Most of the growth is expected in Asia and Latin America.
The increasing number of vehicles on roads are contributing to congestion, consumption of fossil fuel and air pollution. Emerging economies are seeking sustainable solutions to tackle the gap between greater demand and road infrastructure capacity. (See Demand Management)
Providing increased capacity is a major challenge everywhere – but the challenge is intensified if the existing infrastructure of roads and bridges is often in a state of disrepair. Road Authorities and owners of transport infrastructure will need to develop a programme of asset management. (See Asset Management) Sustainable solutions to infrastructure problems must be identified to meet future demand. ITS has an important role to play in making better use of existing capacity. (See Use of ITS)
It is important to communicate the benefits of change – and to demonstrate the opportunities for sustainable mobility and economic growth – to overcome inertia and win public acceptance for legislative change. (See Legal and Regulatory Issues)
Challenges relating to ITS deployments vary considerably from country to country. There are several common misunderstandings about deploying ITS in developing economies that need to be dispelled.
MYTH 1: INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS ARE NOT AFFORDABLE
ITS is expensive to deploy and maintain. Only developed countries can afford to deploy ITS. Emerging economies that are struggling to provide adequate infrastructure to meet mobility demand are not able to afford the costs associated with ITS.
Reality
ITS can provide cost effective solutions to the problem of growing demands – and long-term sustainable solutions to the traffic and travel problems experienced in developed and emerging economies.
For emerging economies, with scarce resources to dedicate to building new highway capacity, ITS solutions can increase the efficiency of existing capacity. Many ITS applications deployed in developing economies have proven that the benefits outweigh the overall costs of implementation. (See ITS Benefits)
Myth 2: Intelligent Transport Systems are difficult to implement
ITS implementation requires sophisticated technologies. Emerging economies have to depend on developed countries for technologies and expertise for any ITS deployment.
Reality
ITS can be implemented in tandem with traditional transport infrastructure projects so they complement each other – or as an independent project which is an alternative to traditional solutions. With ITS know-how and planning, these projects can be easily mainstreamed in a regional transport investment programme. ITS applications that currently exist in developing countries include network monitoring, adaptive signal control, and traffic rerouting. Smartphone applications enable crowd-sourcing of real-time information on traffic status. Augmenting conventional transport infrastructure with ITS applications has been successful in easing mobility problems in many emerging economies. (See Deployment Strategies and Priority Projects)
Myth 3: Intelligent Transport Systems can BE USED TO replace TRADITIONAL TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE
Surface transportation investments will not be necessary when ITS becomes mainstream. ITS will be the dominant transportation infrastructure – ultimately lessening the need for any other transport infrastructure.
Reality
ITS is an integral part of a modern transport system. ITS can be deployed alongside existing transport infrastructure, efficiently and effectively. ITS helps solve mobility problems step-by-step, in a sustainable manner. Decision makers in emerging economies are aware that ITS applications cannot solve all their mobility problems instantly. A phased implementation strategy requires systematic planning by public agencies – for example, by developing an ITS architecture that will support future system integration between existing and new systems. This needs to be combined with a regulatory regime that encourages development by commercial (“added-value”) service providers. (See Strategic Planning)
Myth 4: Planning and Evaluation are not important for ITS projects
ITS planning is a waste of time and resources. The need for ITS is always immediate – so there is no need to spend additional time on planning an ITS deployment.
Reality
Sustainable solutions to mobility problems through ITS require comprehensive planning and organisational capability at national and regional levels. ITS planning can include developing and maintaining an ITS architecture which supports system integration and expansion. ITS evaluation helps assess whether an ITS plan is on track to meet programme objectives – and what actions are necessary to meet the objectives of the ITS plan. ITS requires careful planning and evaluation to support future expandability, interoperability and system integration. (See Project Appraisal)
There are a great variety of ITS technologies. The basic building blocks form part of the ITS infrastructure and its supporting framework of data and information – or “info-structure” – that enables further ITS applications to be developed. For example, digital maps are an enabling technology for vehicle navigation and must be in place before navigation and route guidance services can be developed. (See Basic Info-structure). The three most widely-available enabling technologies for ITS in developing countries are Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), cellular mobile phones, and the internet.
The adoption of advanced ITS technologies in some transitional and developing countries has been very rapid. As latecomers in deploying ITS they benefit from two main advantages:
Countries without extensive legacy technical infrastructure (for example, ground telephone systems) or institutional infrastructure (such as automatic banking systems) are able to exploit mobile communications and smart card technologies with less institutional resistance.
A technology review should include all commercial and military technologies that are available. The basic considerations for comparing and choosing between them – for ITS applications – are fundamentally the same, irrespective of how communication technologies develop. A cost-benefit analysis of communications options is a basic requirement. Other important criteria for selection are:
Maintenance standards of infrastructure can also have a bearing on the type of ITS equipment to be installed. For example, if the road surface is poorly maintained, it does not make sense to lay loop detectors underneath it – since they are likely to be out of action for long periods.
ITS technology may be adapted to serve different or multiple functions. For example, in many countries automatic vehicle location using GPS is more often installed on trucks and buses for security reasons – rather than for efficient fleet dispatch. This kind of application may be mandated by government to achieve policy objectives – such as reducing crime.
Climate and weather conditions may require a particular approach. For example, in some parts of Indonesia expressway sign boards are illuminated to improve traffic sign visibility – to overcome the problem of torrential rain in the wet season followed by extremely dusty conditions in the dry season.
Other important assessment criteria include:
The organisation procuring the equipment must assess the commitment and capability of the supplier – either directly or indirectly – through a reference check. “Least cost” tenders are not necessarily the best ones as the suppliers offering them may not have the capability to deliver and may not survive in competition.
Wherever possible, when procuring ITS, it is advisable not to rely on technical specifications that will limit the supplier’s options. A better approach is to develop minimum performance requirements and insist in the tender documents that the supplier provides “proof of concept” for its solution – to show that it will deliver the required performance. This will reduce the risk of procuring end-of-life or obsolescent equipment and is more likely to achieve a good result. Safeguards should be included in the contract, such as break points. Risk sharing can be achieved through prototyping and group purchasing.
Organisations that have traditionally dealt with the construction and maintenance of civil engineering infrastructure – such as highways, roads and bridges – will have a big adjustment to make when providing services through ITS technologies based on sensors, processors and communication technologies. Adapting to ITS technologies requires investment in human capital and organisational commitment – both of which will need organisational and political commitment.
ITS practitioners and decision-makers include the planners, designers, managers and technicians involved in developing, deploying and maintaining ITS systems. Each group will have its own ITS knowledge and competency requirements. For example:
Senior management must have a good level understanding of the functions, costs and benefits of ITS – if these technologies are to be embraced at the decision making level. Management will be responsible for planning, developing and directing the organisational changes in business culture and practice to ensure that ITS becomes a mainstream business activity. Mainstreaming helps ensure that ITS solutions and services are always considered as an option – but only selected, if it is better than other alternatives.
ITS specialists in a Road Authority should bring an in-depth understanding of ITS, able to plan deployments in some detail – perhaps with the help of the visiting experts. They will be expected to:
Interactive and distance learning through the internet has been effective – especially for those who have time or geographical constraints or want to learn at their own pace. Internal staff members can periodically review the web pages of vendors and trade associations – and attend meetings and exhibitions sponsored by ITS organisations (national ITS group meetings and the ITS World Congress).
A good way to strengthen an organisation’s ITS knowledge is to recruit recent graduates from reputed colleges with ITS curricula. Workshops and seminars/webinars can be provided to the management of an organisation – to build their awareness of ITS in terms of planning, services, costs and benefits. Other staff – especially those who may become involved with ITS in a non-technical capacity, such as contracts and administrative staff – will also benefit from ITS awareness training.
Staff turnover can be a serious problem – making it necessary to repeat the same training process over and over again. Frequently, new staff simply have to learn by doing, without having gone through a systematic training process.
Over the years the US Department of Transportation has developed a comprehensive programme of courses, webinars and workshops in ITS – as part of a professional capacity building program. Some are available for distance learning. (See USDOT ITS Website and ITS ePrimer)
Websites are also useful to gain an immediate (even if not, thorough) understanding of new technical terms and acronyms.
An important resource for developing an awareness ITS among senior staff is the World Bank ITS Toolkit (2011) – which is outlined in the display box below.
ITS Awareness and Senior Managers
The World Bank ITS Toolkit is described as a self-learning on-line resource for transport leaders and their advisers. It provides guidance in the planning, design, implementation, and evaluation of an ITS programme for urban transport.
Although designed for ITS in an urban context – with the emphasis on public transport – a number of the training modules are equally valid for ITS on major road networks and highways. Topics covered are:
A handbook and a companion guide are available for download.
Training for ITS specialists requires a multidisciplinary approach that is not confined to a single engineering programme, such as civil or electrical engineering. It should be geared towards educating professionals in a range of subjects – traffic engineering, computer networks, telecommunications and information technology – with in-depth training in specialist topics, such as traffic flow, system integration and technology evaluation.
Areas that are essential to become familiar with – for professionals working at an advanced level in planning and project management for ITS – include:
ITS educational and training programmes need to encompass multiple disciplines and application areas – such as planning, systems analysis and design, technology evaluation, data analysis and management, system integration and the organisational and institutional aspects of ITS.
ITS planning for a region will comprise documents developed using the methodology of “describing the answers to the questions”:
A regional ITS architecture and ITS standards supporting interfaces within the architecture can go some way in answering these questions. ITS architecture defines functions and associated subsystems, and interfaces, information and data flows between subsystems. (See ITS Architecture)
Capacity building in project appraisal will require an ability to perform the following tasks:
An investment appraisal before any decisions are made to implement an ITS deployment is an essential step in making the business case for ITS – and to secure funding for it. (See Finance and Contracts)
Evaluation of ITS Projects
An introduction to appraisal and evaluation of ITS projects has been developed by the organisation IBEC (the International Benefits, Evaluation and Costs group). It:
It is likely that ITS will require both traditional and non-traditional financing methods – as public funding for transport infrastructure tries to keep pace with the demand for mobility. For example, toll roads and traffic control centres are sometimes developed through a public-private partnership – and this may become more common in future.
ITS staff must also be capable of selecting and managing ITS contracts, which differ from those required for procurement and contract management in construction projects. ITS professionals should be able to select contractors, develop test plans, conduct product acceptance testing, and identify warranty requirements for ITS projects. (See Finance and Contracts)
Details of the technical specifications for the equipment used in providing the service are open for the contractor to propose. With information and communications technology developing apace, this flexibility is needed to ensure that the ITS equipment is fit for purpose and not obsolete or likely to become obsolete in the near future.
ITS service specifications need to be written using the legal language of contract documents (such as using a “shall” statement for a requirement) and in a format that can be readily adapted to form a schedule of technical requirements. ITS professionals can develop these skills with practice and by working alongside technical experts who have the know-how.
In a performance-based contract, payment depends on achieving satisfactory service performance – and not on a bill-of-quantities. Payment to the contractor is determined by how well the service output requirements are met – these are fundamental to the contract for:
Financial penalties will be specified in the contract – that would be triggered if service requirements are not met or maintained. These penalties have to be reflected in the service payment mechanism – which is another area where an agency needs to develop expertise or create an Expert Advisers Panel for support.
Very often an organisation or agency that is developing an ITS programme for the first time will need experience of selecting and working with international suppliers of ITS equipment and services. For example, it is likely that a road authority will wish to form a partnership with a preferred supplier – such as a systems integrator – who can work alongside the authority to assist with ITS deployments and operations. Typically the process of selecting a partner organisation will go through a number of stages.
Stage 1 Informal Discussions
These can be held with potential partners on a bilateral basis without prejudice to the final outcome of the procurement process. Potential candidates will often be a consortium, based on a local company paired with a major international ITS service operator or ITS systems integrator.
Stage 2 Pre-qualification
When the client organisation is ready to commit to an ITS project it will issue a public notice and a request for proposals from companies and consortia with the required knowledge and experience for formal prequalification.
Stage 3 Evaluate Proposals
To be accepted for pre-qualification, a candidate will be expected to supply evidence showing a comprehensive track record which demonstrates the consortium’s ability and technical capacity to deliver the project requirement. Candidates will usually be assessed against three main criteria:
Based on the information provided – and after further inquiries, if necessary – the organisations that meet, in full, all the prequalification requirements, are accepted on the tender list.
Stage 4 Request Tenders
Organisations who pre-qualify (and only those who pre-qualify) will be requested to submit tenders to provide ITS services against the authority’s service requirements specifications
Stage 5 Evaluate Tenders
Tenders are evaluated and the selection of a partner organisation proceeds on the basis of formal negotiations with a preferred partner – leading to a “best and final offer”. Sometimes negotiations take place in parallel with the second place candidate in order to have a supplier in reserve if negotiations with the leading contender fail unexpectedly.
(See Procurement’ and Contracts)
ITS specialists need to be very familiar with the fundamentals of road traffic flow and the interactions between different roadway elements such as the vehicles, drivers, pedestrians, passengers, environment, traffic control and road geometry. They need to know how to manage and control the negative impacts of interactions – such as congestion, accidents and collisions. This knowledge is vital for many road-based ITS applications. It requires a knowledge of the basic characteristics of traffic flow at both a:
Most academic textbooks on traffic engineering and traffic flow theory offer a useful resource for developing knowledge of the fundamentals of traffic flow and traffic control. Traditional civil engineering programmes at colleges and universities offer undergraduate courses on transport engineering – which focus on road and traffic engineering. Graduate courses tackling traffic engineering and traffic flow theory are also available.
At a conceptual level, system design refers to the process of defining what system components are necessary to satisfy the user requirements. In practice, system design requires more detailed investigations to determine:
A part of system design is integration. System integration requires connecting different components seamlessly to provide the required services with the lowest possible investment.
As ITS is a complex system – a systems engineering process should be followed in each stage of the life cycle of an ITS project. (See Systems Engineering)
A useful document on this process in relation to ITS, "Systems Engineering Guidebook for ITS", is published by USDOT.
Successful data analysis and management requires a knowledge of data collection and how to store, manage and distribute it – so that useful information can be extracted. ITS professionals should be able to develop and execute a data management plan, which includes the following:
The core ITS applications for road network operations include:
Professionals associated with ITS operations need to develop capabilities in all these areas. Similarly, maintenance engineers and technicians need to develop skills to enable them to troubleshoot and fix ITS devices when necessary. ITS maintenance differs significantly from traditional highway maintenance activities for bridges and road pavements. A practical training programme is needed.
ITS Learning Partnership Programme
This one-off World Bank programme provides a model for ITS training and professional capacity development. It was offered in 2010 for Eastern Europe and Central Asia to raise institutional capacity in ITS. The goal was knowledge exchange to promote the development of ITS through dialogue with technical experts and centres of excellence. A series of six webinars was arranged.
1 – Introduction to ITS
2 – Interurban ITS applications
3 – Electronic tolling and payment
4 – Cross regional cooperation
5 – Freight and Logistics applications
6 – Urban ITS applications
A variety of training methods are available for transport professionals who wish to learn more about ITS – which make use of different training mediums. They include remote learning, training secondments, in-house training, internet-based mobile applications, social media, institutional knowledge exchange, and certificate programmes. Different training mediums suit different people.
Alternative media for building ITS capacity
Internet learning opens up significant opportunities for people to acquire knowledge in ITS necessary for their new professional duties. On-line courses and training provide an opportunity to develop skills in ITS planning, development, implementation and maintenance. Institutions where ITS professionals are employed can make a worthwhile investment into building their ITS capacities using remote learning. An example is the Consortium for ITS Training and Education (CITE) in the USA which provides five types of interactive web-based courses – as outlined in the display box below.
On-line educational programmes may cover core subjects – such as knowledge of ITS-based operations. The depth and breadth of teaching vary according to the level of expertise required – from entry-level technicians to graduate-educated professionals and managers. At all levels, participants need to understand how to interact with their peers and co-workers at different levels – and the part that each plays in the wider system.
The Consortium for ITS Training and Education (CITE)
CITE is an organisation with members from universities and industries. It is focused on providing flexible, convenient, and comprehensive advanced transport training and education for its users in academia (faculty members and students) and industry (such as managers, planners, engineers and technicians). CITE offers five types of interactive web-based courses.
Independent Study
Independent study courses allow participating students to register and take any course whenever they choose – with no set time frame to start or complete the course.
Blended courses
Blended courses combine the features of instructor-led training and on-line instructional training. It includes live discussions with an instructor through conference calls, interaction with other students, convenient on-line course materials, and a specific time frame to complete the course.
Certificates
CITE has bundled its courses into topic areas to provide students with four different certificate programs: ITS Project Management, ITS Systems, Road Weather Management, and Traffic Engineering & Operations. Participants need to complete six courses within one year.
Full Semester Program
CITE has bundled several individual courses together to develop two full semester programs of study. They are offered in the fall and spring semesters just like a college/university course.
Courses in Spanish
CITE has converted several courses into Spanish in response to the increasing demand for ITS training from Latin-American professionals.
After successfully completing their CITE courses, participants receive Continuing Education Units (CEU’s) from the University of Maryland. With the approval of CITE’s university partners, these courses may count towards a specific college degree.
Another example is the USDOT-sponsored Talking Technology and Transportation (T3) Webinars that are designed to help agencies to develop a skill set to solve challenges associated with ITS technology deployment and explore new opportunities. Its activities are outlined in the display box below.
USDOT Talking Transportation Technology Webinars
These free webinars are 90 minute, interactive online meetings that offer opportunities for knowledge sharing in ITS planning, design, procurement, deployment, and operations. The goal of this programme is to increase the capacity of ITS professionals in different institutions – by learning from each other’s experience in ITS.
Certification programmes in ITS can be developed at academic institutions or through partnerships between academic institutions and industry. An example is the University of California’s Intelligent Transportation Systems certificate programme – which is jointly sponsored by three departments: Civil and Environmental Engineering, Electrical Engineering, and Computer Science and Mechanical Engineering. Its activities are outlined in the display box below.
University of California Berkeley ITS Certificate Program
The University of California’s Intelligent Transportation Systems certificate provides formal recognition to students that achieve a basic understanding and expertise in ITS. It is designed to help students to study ITS in a systematic and focused way while they are at the university. Students are required to complete two core courses:
A student seeking a certificate in ITS is also required to take three courses from different departments (civil engineering, electrical and electronics engineering, mechanical engineering, computer science and industrial engineering and operations research). Two courses must be from outside the student’s home department.
The Consortium for ITS Training and Education (CITE) is an organisation with members from universities and industries,It also offers on-line certification programmes and courses in different areas of ITS.
Creating the organisational capability for ITS needs vision and commitment from senior management. Any deployment of staff or organisational restructuring needs to be planned carefully – for example, when a road authority takes on new responsibilities for traffic operations. Effecting change needs champions – someone with leadership skills who can secure budget and finance for an initial programme of work and the staff to do that work.
“ITS systems involve a significant investment, in the form of capital investment and organisational commitment.”
The organisation’s capability in ITS is best developed by building-up a team with the knowledge and expertise needed to support the development of the ITS infrastructure. In a road authority, the ITS team will need to work closely with staff dealing with routine maintenance, road safety and emergency response. It is possible that some staff will already have a full appreciation of the potential role that ITS can play. It will be important to build on this core of ITS expertise.
Various tasks – some of them quite major, such as the development of a Traffic Control Centre – may need to be out-sourced. For example, the in-house ITS team could be supported by a technology consultancy who can help specify, install and maintain the IT and communications equipment.
At the organisational level, capacity building and capability in ITS requires action in four main areas – the assignment of roles and responsibilities, inter-agency teaming and partnership, leadership, and human resources
It may be useful – as part of planning for an ITS deployment – to develop a “concept of operations” that sets out the roles and responsibilities of the different operational units involved and identifies all interdependencies. This should be followed by analysing the gaps between the existing skills base of each unit – compared with the knowledge and expertise necessary. The gaps can then be filled with a customised training and development programme for key individuals. (See "Concept of Operations Document” in Using ITS Architecture)
The need for cross-boundary and inter-disciplinary coordination between the different organisations and agencies that are involved with ITS has led to partnerships being developed to achieve specific ITS service objectives. Even seemingly minority stakeholders can introduce issues that must be recognised and dealt with. Generally it is better to uncover all potential issues early on in the planning stages – so they can be taken into account. An effective communication strategy with stakeholders will provide the opportunity to develop contingency options. The aim is to build consensus on service priorities and requirements. (See Integrated Operations)
In the ITS, public agencies and private organisations must collaborate together. This requires building a knowledge base about the tasks performed by each. A capacity building programme to support inter-agency working and partnership will empower employees at each collaborating agency.
Leaders and champions are an important factor in speeding deployment of ITS-based services – by ensuring that organisations coordinate with one another. Finding at least one leader or champion from each stakeholder group, in different ITS application areas, will help to move ITS into the mainstream of solving existing and future mobility problems.
In time, it is possible that a requirement for certification of professional standards and levels of expertise will emerge in response to the ITS industry’s needs. For example, in future it could be a requirement that ITS professionals will not be allowed to practice without some type of certification. At the outset, the need for certification should be identified in consultation with the technicians, professionals, managers, and educators most closely involved.
Introducing this requirement could motivate ITS capability-building at a professional level and satisfy minimum ITS competency requirements. Professional organisations in the transport sector are well-placed to develop guidelines related to the certification process, which might include a code of conduct for certified professionals and enforcement strategies. An example is the UK’s Chartered Engineers programme – similar to the United States’ Professional Engineering programme. In both cases, professional engineering registration is a requirement for completing certain engineering tasks – such as design. Adapting these programmes to include ITS will support accelerated ITS professional capacity development.
In addition to understanding the technical and operational requirements for ITS, an appreciation of the legal and regulatory framework in which deployments take place, is essential for ITS professionals and the organisations for which they work. The regulatory framework can be considered in two ways: legal requirements and their enforcement. (See Legal and Regulatory and Policing/Enforcement)
ITS deployments require coordination between diverse agencies from public and private sectors to provide transport services. Stakeholders must be institutionally prepared to make organisational agreements on their respective roles and responsibilities in providing any ITS service.
Initially, stakeholders can develop voluntary agreements and progress to Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) on their respective roles and responsibilities in providing one or more ITS services. The following steps can be followed in developing MOUs – and an ITS architecture (where one exists) can help facilitate their achievement (See ITS Architecture):
MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING, USA
One example of a MOU is between the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) District 2 ITS Office and the Florida Highway Patrol (FHP) on communication protocols between responding agencies involved in traffic incident management.
The MOU identified specific roles and responsibilities for personnel of the FDOT and FHP on incident response and scene management. An MOU can be formalised into a legal contractual agreement. It is likely that no two stakeholders will have the same set of requirements – since each has different needs and resources. The details of roles and responsibilities can be specified in a formal contractual agreement. This means that each stakeholder is answerable to minimum performance standards – and legal action can be taken if these standards are not met.
An enforcement framework is necessary to support legislation on ITS operations. Enforcement mechanisms must be in place to detect and penalise unlawful or unauthorised operations. Many ITS applications – such as electronic payment high occupancy toll (HOT) lanes, high occupancy vehicle operations, and red light running enforcement at traffic signals – require camera based automatic enforcement systems. Automatic enforcement includes the following processes:
Automatic enforcement strategies vary from country to country, depending on detection technology, institutional policies, traffic related legislation, and vehicle data availability. Although automatic enforcement systems are technically feasible, many non-technical issues must be addressed before their widespread deployment. These include privacy, legal compliance, and public acceptance. If addressed successfully, automated enforcement can provide positive benefits for toll collection, traffic operations, and safety.
A prerequisite for efficient automated vehicle enforcement systems is the availability of a centralised register of vehicles and their owners at a national level. If the register is not centralised, the process of identifying vehicles and drivers from outside the jurisdiction where the infringement takes place, is extremely laborious. It is very difficult for countries to routinely follow up infringements by foreign vehicles – unless neighbouring countries have mutual agreements in place.
One of the reasons for the relatively widespread use of automated enforcement technologies is the active involvement of industry and suppliers of equipment. The private sector has often offered to cancel many of the deployment costs in return for receiving a percentage of revenues gained from the ticketing process. This model has facilitated rapid deployment but needs to be considered carefully by road operators to ensure that authorised deployments keep safety considerations at the forefront and are sensitive to user needs and public perceptions.