ITS applications are central to the monitoring of the performance of passenger transport fleets and operations. Most importantly, they allow the operators of public passenger transport to visualise where their vehicles are located at any particular time, both in terms of actual location and relative to their schedule. They can also generate considerable amounts of data for post-event analysis – which can result in the introduction of measures to deliver major cost savings and productivity improvements. The interface in real-time between the road network operator and the controller of bus, minibus or transit operations is also important during traffic incidents and other emergencies. (See Traffic Incidents and Emergency Response)
The various categories of operation and fleet management function supported or carried out by ITS applications are described below. A particularly useful reference is the ITS Toolkit for Intelligent Transport Systems for urban passenger transport that has been developed by the World Bank: http://www.robat.scl.net/content/ITS-Toolkit/overview.html
Standards organisations are particularly relevant in this area. The world standards organisation is ISO (International Organisation for Standardisation). ISO Technical Committee 204 is responsible for Transport Information and Control Systems and includes a working group, WG8 Public Transport / Emergency, for which the Secretariat is provided by the USA.
The European Committee for Standardization (CEN - Comité Européen de Normalisation) is the relevant body for Europe. It has issued standards relating to a data model for public transport information (Transmodel) and to Real Time Information (SIRI – Service Interface for Real Time Information). Currently, at the pre-standards stage, is the development of a reference data model for describing fixed objects which is necessary for access to public transport (IFOPT - Identification of Fixed Objects in Public Transport).
Some countries are very active in contributing to the standardisation process in the area of public passenger transport, particularly the USA, Germany, and the UK. The USA has a protocol, the National Transportation Communications for Intelligent Transportation System Protocol (NTCIP), a family of standards designed to achieve interoperability and interchangeability between computers and electronic traffic control equipment from different manufacturers.
The USA’s Transit Co-operative Research Program (TCRP: http://www.tcrponline.org) publishes a lot of useful material including research data and operator and agency experience. Of critical importance in this field is the work of UITP and two ground-breaking projects in which it has been involved: EBSF (http://www.ebsf.eu, European Bus System of the Future) and associated initiatives such as 3iBS (http://www.3ibs.eu, Intelligent, Innovative, Integrated Bus System); and ITxPT (http://www.itxpt.org Information Technology for Public Transport).
One of the objectives of Road Network Operations is to provide for reliable bus, coach and taxi services on the network. The rapid detection and prompt resolution of any obstruction or other disruption to the roadway will help minimise the negative impact on passenger services and enable the resumption of normal operations as soon as possible after an incident. Good communications and close co-operation between passenger transport operators and the organisations responsible for the road network will pay dividends, especially when service diversions are necessary.
A key role for the Road Network Operator is the deployment of appropriate in-road and roadside equipment, such as transponders to control traffic signal priority for bus or transit priority. The Road Network Operator has a further interest in ensuring that public transport operations are properly provided for (e.g. the location of bus stops or the application of bus priority measures) so that general traffic is not disrupted, nor are other road users adversely affected.
Developing a schedule involves the preparation and assignment of the operational duties of a vehicle and crew in accordance with a required service specification, legal regulations and agreed work rules. Automated schedule systems are key for feeding data into other ITS systems as they determine the detailed timetable to which the bus service runs and provide a benchmark against which ITS applications are monitored.
PC or cloud-based proprietary scheduling packages are available but require the operator to input additional data on resource requirements (such as vehicles and crews), operating parameters (route lengths and operating speeds) and any relevant legal and policy requirements (such as drivers’ hours regulations).
Effective bus service scheduling is critically dependent on the accuracy of the data in terms of running speeds and their variability over different sections of route and times of day. In developing countries the variability may be very high, whereas the systems for accurately recording the data may be poor. The planning of reliable and efficient procedures for recording and using data is a key issue to be tackled prior to implementation.
It is in the road network operator’s interest to ensure that bus schedules are planned and maintained with an accurate knowledge of expected road closures and any known reductions in network availability. Data on planned events and other activities that may disrupt transport services should be made available to bus operators as far ahead as possible to feed into timetabling and service planning. Conversely the transport operator may hold accurate data on journey times and traffic running speeds at different locations and at different times of day that may be useful to the road network operator (for example as an indicator of the levels of service provided.)
Practitioners should consider the ability of automated scheduling systems to transfer data easily and cheaply under open protocols. The value of such systems to operations and fleet management essentially depends on the extent to which interaction with other ITS applications is possible.
More accurate data on road networks is becoming available – and the power and capacity of automated scheduling software is continually increasing. Suppliers of software are enhancing their products by developing features that integrate with other applications.
The key issue in running a scheduled service to a fixed timetable or headway in a developing country, is that scheduled services are rare because it is often the norm for services to run only when they are full. It may also be the case that the concept of running operations according to fixed times runs contrary to the prevailing culture. This represents a challenge - particularly where operational control procedures are not well-established or formalised. Operating a scheduled bus service also relies on the number of vehicles available being fairly stable. This can only be assured if formal vehicle maintenance procedures have been adopted and there are adequate facilities.
A serious issue is the high cost of proprietary scheduling systems. The investment may be justified by the potential efficiency savings that the systems offer - particularly in terms of the vehicle numbers required. However, the savings can only be realised if there are clear control procedures for staff and drivers so that vehicles can be moved between routes smoothly, according to the scheduled plan. Systems may need to take account of low literacy rates amongst driving staff in some countries.
Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) is at the heart of modern fleet management, helping operators to manage fleets more effectively through technologies that can provide a direct link between vehicles, operation control centres and real-time passenger information systems. It allows for real-time tracking of vehicles, enabling improved service efficiency, asset utilisation and customer service.
The primary navigational technologies used in AVL systems include Global Positioning Systems (GPS), dead-reckoning systems, station or roadside detectors, sub-surface detector loops and wireless triangulation. In-vehicle data processing is undertaken so that the GPS receiver’s three-dimensional coordinates can be determined. The information on vehicle location is then sent to the traffic centre, the dispatch centre and bus stop as needed. (See Enabling Technologies)
Since all satellite navigation systems require the observation of at least four satellites to function, vehicle location needs complementary systems that continue to work even when a vehicle is in a tunnel, under trees, or surrounded by tall buildings. Gaps in coverage can be bridged by:
There are other methods to determine vehicle location – such as mobile phones. These are important for emergency calls and other location-specific ITS services.
Practitioners will need to take decisions on how much to centralise the control centre. This will depend greatly on how much the dispatching function is already decentralised and on the capabilities of operating staff.
GALILEO, Europe’s Global Satellite Navigation System will provide a highly accurate guaranteed global positioning service under civilian control. The fully deployed system will consist of 30 satellites and the associated ground infrastructure. Galileo will be interoperable with GPS and GLONASS, the US and Russian military global satellite navigation systems. The high number of satellites available will allow positions to be determined to within a few centimetres, improving the availability of signals in high rise cities and providing better coverage at high latitudes.
Considerable investment is needed in data collection and software development to map the transport network and complement data generated by traffic and vehicles. ITS requires reliable databases of network links, interconnections and other features, supported by a sound location referencing system. Without an inventory of stop locations, for example, it is not possible to offer point-to-point journey planning for public transport. Similarly for road information, reliable coding of the network is needed for emergency response. Wherever possible, collection, location referencing and storage of this data in a database for use by public transport operators or an agency should be co-ordinated and compatible with data on the road network held by the road network operator.
Transport network databases need constant maintenance to keep them up-to-date. Careful checking is essential to avoid errors which can lead to features being incorrectly located.
A number of operational functions can be monitored by on-board systems - from the operational status of a route (including schedule adherence) to consumption of resources, engine performance and driving behaviour. Data from operational status monitoring can also enable more effective monitoring of service contract performance.
These features will typically be implemented as part of an application integrating service schedules and route details with Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) and Computer Aided Design (CAD) technologies – to convey information to the CAD / Automatic Vehicle Monitoring (AVM) dispatcher. Microcontrollers located on individual vehicle components allow the technical status of the vehicle drive-train to be captured for monitoring purposes. Infrared sensors and on-board cameras capture passenger loading data.
It is important that different systems used for different purposes do not conflict with each other. The extent to which a bus or coach manufacturer’s technical specification allows for the coexistence of different monitoring functionality needs to be considered prior to purchasing new vehicles.
Applications for monitoring performance must be complemented by training programmes aimed at improving performance, if the ITS systems are to have any benefit.
Similarly the delivery of status monitoring information to dispatchers can be made more effective when complemented by tools which highlight changes in status - such as colour coding, flashing lights and audio.
The value of monitoring applications is increasing rapidly due to the availability of more accurate data, higher processing power, more sophisticated algorithms for data analysis - and a growing range of devices from which results can be accessed. The European Bus System of the Future (EBSF) project (http://www.ebsf.eu) showed that by combining a dynamic programming algorithm with monitoring of fuel consumption by auxiliaries – it was possible to reduce fuel consumption to an absolute minimum.
Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) will also increasingly be offering monitoring applications as standard, factory-installed on-board computers.
The usefulness of sophisticated monitoring systems for vehicle performance will often depend on vehicles being properly maintained and on drivers being able to interpret console warning signals. These conditions must be in place if monitoring systems are to be used effectively.
Key operations at terminals include Computer-Aided Despatch (CAD), platform /stand allocation, kerb/stop alignment, platform / stand announcements, and crowd control. Terminals are critical locations for realigning operations with schedules. ITS is of great benefit here in providing the information that allows vehicle controllers to adjust service levels. Vehicle control rooms are often situated in terminals therefore – which are also often the places where driving staff take their rest and meal breaks.
Infrared sensors are used for vehicle alignment and may also be used for crowd control and for passenger platform access control.
In the Transport Est-Ouest Rouennais (TEOR) system in Rouen an optical guidance system is successfully used to align the bus at the platform. An electronic suspension control enables precise vertical alignment to the platform and a gap filler installation is used for horizontal gap filling. Electronic infrared cells on the side of the vehicle detect the height of the dock and regulate the vehicle’s height with an automatic suspension system, placing the bus at the same level as the dock.
Computer algorithms may be used for allocating vehicles to specific departure platforms. Computer models may be constructed, based, for instance, on the IFOPT specification, to map out at terminals so that physical layout can be fully expressed and correct information conveyed to passengers.
Control of driver breaks is, in many countries, important to comply with legal requirements. These can take place at terminals and ITS tools can assist in their management by monitoring driver performance and adherence to schedule as well as the position and predicted arrival times of vehicles. The road network operator should liaise with operators to ensure that bus layover locations are made available on or adjacent to the road network at places where it makes operational sense to have them.
Real-time allocation of stands or stand platforms is increasing but is still a new phenomenon. A recent installation in the UK is at the new Bus Station at Chatham, in the Medway area.
Bus Station at Chatham
Chatham Waterfront consists of four platforms labelled A, B, C and D - each with a number of individual stops on them. While the bus stop from which passengers catch their bus service may change, they will always go to the same platform for a particular destination
Large variability in road speed and unpredictable traffic congestion, combined with volatile passenger demand, can lead to pressure to abandon bus schedules in urban areas in developing economies. ITS tools can give essential information to route controllers at terminals to enable them to adjust operations efficiently - and in such a way that drivers’ hours remain within legal requirements. However, good radio links for vehicle controllers at all key locations, particularly terminals and major well-used passenger stops are vital. Vehicle controllers should also be alerted to social media broadcasts of traffic disruptions (e.g. Twitter feeds), particularly if it is not possible to provide reliable radio access to vehicles.
ITS can also assist drivers with vehicle parking in situations where there is excess capacity of vehicles - as is often the case, outside of peak hours, in developing economies.
It is essential that when communications infrastructure is planned a holistic and integrated approach is adopted, so that all parts work together to provide what is needed. The ITS should be planned into terminal design. This is relevant also to Traveller Services. (See Traveller Services)
Studies worldwide have shown growth in public transport passenger patronage as a result of measures which set effective traffic priorities. In the US passenger numbers along commuter corridors equipped with bus rapid transit systems - increase by an average of 35% according to the US Department of Transportation’s Federal Transit Administration. Bus rapid transit - defined as bus public transport enhanced with ITS systems for better services - is winning new passengers wishing to avoid personal car transport and the associated fuel costs and traffic congestion. Public transport vehicles can be given priority over general traffic by integrating their operation into urban traffic control (UTC) systems. Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) enables buses and trams to be identified as they approach signalised intersections, where they transmit a ‘request’ to the traffic light controller to extend or recall the green phase for long enough to let them through. Detection can be via inductive loops under the road surface, roadside beacons, or GPS systems, which may be integrated with real-time information systems.
Another priority system is the guided busway, which has been implemented in Germany, Australia and the UK. This supplements conventional bus lanes with specially-designed track sections. There are both mechanical and electronic systems. In electronic systems an electric cable is embedded in the centre of the busway. On-board inductive detection steers the wheels continuously to keep the vehicle centred over the cable. At the end of a busway section, traffic signal priority allows access to general roadway lanes.
Inductive loop detectors can be used to detect the passage of vehicles in a given location. The detector consists of a wire loop embedded in the surface of the roadway which is connected to an electronic unit housed in a controller cabinet. The presence of a conductive metal object is sensed as a reduction in loop inductance - which is ultimately interpreted by the controller as a vehicle. While this is a commonly used technology, virtual GPS systems have now entered the market – and these may be linked to the on-vehicle computer.
Such systems and infrastructure for controlling accessing to a busway need to be integrated and co-ordinated with other elements of the road network operator’s asset base.
It is essential that the road network operators work together with transport operators to ensure that ITS systems are both designed to function together and also actually do in practice. The aim is to enable the provision of reliable bus services and in congested areas this may require a policy of prioritising buses over other classes of traffic. Any consequent negative impacts on other classes of road users should be thought through and not just occur as an unplanned result of actions, policies or systems for public passenger transport.
Areas of which can cause difficulty include communications protocols, compatibility of infrastructure, proprietary systems, data transfer, incompatible location referencing, lack of open standards, and operational procedures. Responsibilities of each organisation also need to be clearly understood as part of the concept of operations when developing the ITS architecture. (See ITS Architecture)
It is essential that all parties communicate and partner together effectively over street layout and the choice of traffic control equipment. Equipment that is purchased by road network operators must be compatible with standard in-vehicle detection and activation equipment installed by bus manufacturers.
Sub-surface detector loops are not capable of distinguishing between different vehicles of the same type and so are not suited to monitoring the location of a specific vehicle. Some traffic control systems are capable of allowing selective bus or tram signal priority, depending on whether or not the vehicle is running late.
Increasingly, AVL and communications with road infrastructure are being integrated - leading to a reduction in the number of on-board bus computer units.
Wherever a culture of low adherence to traffic rules exists, in order to ensure effective traffic priority, the visible presence of traffic supervisors to enforce rules may be necessary irrespective of the presence of ITS systems and traffic signals. In such circumstances the traffic supervisors need training on working effectively with the ITS systems.
Condition-based vehicle maintenance systems can be enhanced and supported through in-vehicle data capture technologies monitoring the status of the vehicle’s drive-train and the parking system. Vehicle Maintenance Scheduling systems, which are not usually complex but may incorporate an extensive database, can be linked to other ITS applications such as Automatic vehicle Location (AVL) systems which hold data on the number of kilometres travelled.
ITS-supported maintenance systems can consolidate all records of planned and unplanned maintenance into a single system and may be designed to automatically generate maintenance schedules.
Telediagnostic systems, based on monitoring, can optimise preventive and predictive maintenance. This can lead to a reduced number of vehicles being required to operate a given bus network and so lower costs.
Advanced databases store a large number of users, records and enquiries. These can be integrated with administrative resources used to plan, monitor and record maintenance.
Best value from condition-based monitoring systems is usually obtained when they are integrated with the operator’s other systems - from the input provided by on-board monitoring systems to management accounts outputs.
Advanced vehicle maintenance systems focussing on maximising fuel economy are likely to be developed in the next few years as additional on-board equipment (including that needed for ITS systems). The increased weight may contribute to higher fuel consumption.
Advanced vehicle maintenance systems can help to structure and plan maintenance - but only if the equipment and physical infrastructure to deliver the required maintenance is already in place. They can be of help in demonstrating the consequences of failure to maintain vehicles in terms of unit failure rates and so provide valuable evidence to convince stakeholders (agencies and operators) that regular, structured, vehicle maintenance is a necessary requirement in running a bus service.
Bus network planning and incident coordination are two key areas for managing bus operations.
Computer-based network planning tools range from simple spreadsheet-based resources to complex network modelling and demand forecasting tools. For spreadsheet-based planning, only basic calibration data, current travel patterns, growth forecasts and unit cost and revenue data will be needed. More complex modelling and forecasting will require heavy computational software modelling abilities – such as four-step or activity based models. It will also require considerable data input including origin-destination datasets, activity information, road network descriptors and travel times and costs.
Potential demand for a bus network is likely to emerge, either directly or indirectly, out of wider multi-modal models with much data. Relatively little data will then be needed for modelling the bus network itself – data such as journey times, fleet sizes, depot locations, and fares.
Some collaboration will be required between the road network operator and the bus operator(s) to specify the corridors and sections of road where bus priority is needed and the junctions and approaches where bus gates or traffic signal priority and enforcement are required. (See Urban Traffic Management and Urban Traffic Control)
The bus network will need to be digitally defined, using accepted national or international protocols (for example the TransXChange data format used in the UK, which is based on the CEN - Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) Transmodal conceptual model). This definition will include details of the roads used, the stops used and the stop patterns for each defined bus journey. With such a geo-spatial definition it becomes possible to construct digital maps of the bus network that can be accessed, in whole or in part, over various digital media such as websites, and mobile phone apps and can also be produced in printed form.
A particular useful application is the public transport journey planner, and increasingly these are combined with information on walking routes and walking speeds to give door-to-door journey planners. (See Journey Planning)
Equipping service controllers with internet-enabled communications devices (such as hand-held devices or smartphones with relevant apps) enables them to keep passengers informed with up to date and correct in formation. Similarly, enabling direct radio communication between vehicles, will allows drivers to co-ordinate their own operations where appropriate. (See Traffic Incidents)
For bus network planning, major determinants of demand for bus services are fare levels, fare structures and payment methods. Fare structures are also a key factor in helping make interchange with other bus networks and other transport modes convenient – and this too is a key influencer of demand. Service planning modelling tools should be used in conjunction with local knowledge to ensure that local constraints and conditions are given their proper weight.
For service incident coordination it is essential that clear protocols are in place for operating staff to follow - so that they can judge when to delay the departure of connecting vehicles if first vehicles are running late and when to strictly adhere to the scheduled timetable.
The availability of detailed and freely-accessed digital street maps has increased enormously in recent years, as have the computational power and data storage facilities of PCs and other desk-based and portable computers. This has meant that relatively simple and straightforward models of bus networks with accurate data can be more easily constructed than before. (See Location Referencing)
Demand for bus services will grow in response to rapid urbanisation and the ease with which operators of more informal bus services - often found in developing economies - are able to function. This must be taken account in all bus network planning. It is necessary to attend to basic requirements first – such as designated passenger pick up and setting down points. Properly functioning communications systems are essential to deal effectively with incident coordination.